Coal flowed across borders, but so did the damage. Will Assam and Meghalaya break the cycle before it’s too late?

By Bijoy A. Sangma

Two states, one resource, and a fractured legacy

Assam and Meghalaya share deep historical, cultural, and economic ties, yet their coal-driven economies have placed them on diverging paths. Meghalaya’s vast coal reserves powered Assam’s industries for decades, fuelling its brick kilns, tea estates, and cement factories. But while Assam thrived on this supply, the extraction process left Meghalaya with devastated landscapes, poisoned rivers, and a mounting human toll. The consequences of unregulated mining were borne by one state, while the benefits largely accrued to the other.

Today, as Meghalaya transitions toward scientific coal mining, Assam faces a reckoning of its own. Can it continue to rely on a resource that has left Meghalaya environmentally scarred? Or will both states find a way to balance economic development with sustainability?

The high cost of unchecked mining

For years, Meghalaya’s coal industry was synonymous with rat-hole mining, an unregulated and dangerous practice where miners, often children, crawled into suffocating tunnels to extract coal. It was a lucrative but perilous trade. The price paid in human lives and environmental destruction was staggering – hillsides collapsed, rivers turned acidic, and mining accidents became common.

According to Global Forest Watch, between 2001 and 2012, Meghalaya lost 60,914 hectares of forest – nearly 3% of its land area. Acid mine drainage seeped into rivers, rendering them lifeless. The Lukha River in Jaintia Hills, once pristine, turned an unnatural shade of blue, a chilling testament to the toxic legacy of unregulated extraction. Downstream in Assam, farmers and fishermen began noticing declining yields and dying aquatic life, a ripple effect of Meghalaya’s unchecked mining.

Assam’s own struggle with coal mining

While Meghalaya’s mining practices have long been under scrutiny, Assam has its own complex relationship with coal extraction. The state is home to coalfields such as the Dilli-Jeypore, straddling the Dibrugarh and Sivasagar districts. However, recent incidents have cast a shadow over Assam’s mining industry. In January 2025, a tragic accident in the Umrangso area of Dima Hasao district resulted in the entrapment of nine miners due to sudden flooding. This incident not only highlighted the perils associated with unregulated mining but also underscored the urgent need for stringent safety protocols and regulatory oversight within Assam.

The human cost buried beneath the earth

Beyond the environmental catastrophe, coal mining in Meghalaya became a humanitarian crisis. Since 2012, at least 60 miners have reportedly died in accidents, though the real number is likely much higher due to unreported incidents. In December 2018, 20 miners were trapped in a flooded mine in Ksan, East Jaintia Hills. Only five survived. The failed rescue operation, stretching for months, laid bare the grim realities of the state’s mining industry. Meanwhile, the National Green Tribunal (NGT) revealed a shocking truth – there were over 24,000 coal mines operating in Meghalaya, many of them illegal.

Assam, as a major consumer of this coal, remained largely disconnected from the grim conditions under which it was extracted. But can it continue to turn a blind eye? Should the state push for more ethical sourcing of its coal supply?

The 2014 ban that shook Assam’s economy

The NGT’s 2014 ban on coal mining and transportation in Meghalaya sent shockwaves through Assam’s industrial sector. Brick kilns scrambled for affordable fuel, cement factories slowed production, and coal prices skyrocketed. For years, Assam’s economic expansion had been powered by Meghalaya’s coal, flowing freely across the border. The sudden disruption forced industries to turn to alternative sources like Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, driving up costs and creating logistical hurdles.

Yet, the ban did not end Meghalaya’s coal trade – it simply pushed it underground. Smugglers found new routes, bribed their way past checkpoints, and moved coal into Assam under the cover of darkness. Illegal mining flourished, enforcement remained weak, and the underground economy thrived.

A legal path to mining

In 2019, the Supreme Court upheld the NGT ban but provided Meghalaya with a legal route forward – scientific mining. It mandated a ₹100 crore environmental restoration fund and strict regulatory compliance for future coal extraction. However, administration slowed progress, and years passed without meaningful implementation.

For Assam, this ruling carried major implications. If Meghalaya successfully transitioned to scientific mining, Assam’s industries would have access to a stable and legally sanctioned coal supply. But if Meghalaya failed, Assam’s dependence on illicit coal would only deepen.

A delayed transition, a tense economy

By August 2024, Meghalaya had received 36 applications for scientific mining, with 13 securing prospecting licenses and four obtaining prior approval for full-scale operations. The long wait for approvals frustrated miners and stoked fears that illegal mining would continue to fill the gap. As on January 16, 2025, Meghalaya was still awaiting final clearance from the Union Coal Ministry, leaving its coal industry – and Assam’s supply chain – in limbo.

Finally, on March 17, 2025, a historic milestone was reached. Meghalaya’s Chief Minister Conrad K. Sangma inaugurated the state’s first scientific coal mine at Saryngkham-A, Byndihati, East Jaintia Hills. This marked a pivotal moment -not just for Meghalaya, but for Assam as well. Legal, environmentally compliant coal could now flow across state borders. The question remained: Would this new system function as promised, or would loopholes allow old practices to persist?

The Shared Responsibility of Both States

Scientific mining promises a departure from the dark legacy of rat-hole mining. It mandates environmental impact assessments, controlled blasting, and regulated waste disposal to prevent acid mine drainage. Perhaps most importantly, land reclamation and afforestation are now requirements, ensuring that extracted areas are rehabilitated instead of abandoned.

For Assam, the shift is equally critical. Its industries must now ensure that their coal comes from legal and environmentally compliant sources. Encouraging investment in sustainable energy alternatives could also reduce long-term dependence on coal, easing the burden on Meghalaya’s fragile ecosystems.

A new economic model for the Northeast

The revival of legal mining in Meghalaya presents a chance for regional economic stability. If properly managed, coal can once again power Assam’s industries without the ethical and environmental concerns that plagued its past. However, the success of this transition depends on strict enforcement, transparent governance, and regional cooperation. Assam must move beyond merely consuming Meghalaya’s coal – it must become a partner in ensuring its responsible extraction.

Can Meghalaya and Assam lead the way?

The Supreme Court’s ₹100 crore environmental restoration fund is a stark reminder that past mistakes must be corrected. True rehabilitation requires large-scale afforestation, water purification, and soil stabilization efforts. This responsibility does not rest solely on Meghalaya – Assam, as a beneficiary of this coal, must actively support these initiatives.

Across the world, responsible mining models have demonstrated that economic growth and sustainability can coexist. Fortescue Metals Group in Australia is shifting toward green hydrogen, proving that mining can embrace clean energy. In Indonesia, High-Pressure Acid Leach (HPAL) technology is enabling low-impact resource extraction. If Meghalaya and Assam learn from these examples, they have the potential to redefine coal mining in the Northeast, setting a precedent for responsible resource management.

A regional transformation

Meghalaya stands at a crossroads. The transition to scientific mining presents an opportunity to correct past mistakes, but its success will depend on strong enforcement, sustainable practices, and responsible governance. If implemented with integrity, it can restore economic prosperity while protecting the environment, ensuring that mining does not come at the cost of human lives and ecological stability.

Assam, too, must make a choice. Will it continue to rely on unregulated coal sources, further entrenching environmental degradation and unsafe labour practices? Or will it actively support Meghalaya’s move toward ethical, legally compliant mining? The state’s industries must ensure that their supply chains align with environmental and labour standards, pushing for transparency and fair trade in the coal sector.

The impact of Meghalaya’s mining policies will extend far beyond its borders. The coal-rich regions of Upper Assam, including Tinsukia, Dibrugarh, and Sivasagar, have their own history of extraction, with mines operated by Coal India Limited and private entities. While regulated, these operations have not been free from controversy, with concerns over land degradation, displacement of indigenous communities, and pollution of major rivers such as the Brahmaputra and its tributaries. Assam’s policymakers must view Meghalaya’s transformation as both a lesson and an opportunity, ensuring that their own coal sector does not follow the path of reckless extraction seen in its neighbouring state.

The Supreme Court’s environmental restoration mandate for Meghalaya serves as a warning to Assam as well. While Meghalaya has been at the centre of the rat-hole mining debate, Assam has its own issues with illegal mining, particularly in areas near the Assam-Arunachal Pradesh border. Reports of coal smuggling and unchecked mining activities in Upper Assam indicate that weak enforcement and political interference remain persistent challenges. Meghalaya’s shift to legal, scientifically managed mining should prompt Assam to implement stronger regulations in its own mining zones, ensuring that extraction does not lead to similar large-scale environmental disasters.

A shared responsibility for a sustainable future

The fate of coal mining in Meghalaya is no longer just a state issue; it is a regional one. Assam’s industries and economy have been deeply intertwined with Meghalaya’s coal trade, and the decisions made today will shape the environmental and economic landscape of both states for generations to come. A sustainable coal trade will require collaboration between governments, regulatory bodies, and industries to enforce responsible mining practices, rehabilitate degraded land, and invest in alternative energy sources that reduce long-term dependence on coal.

If Assam and Meghalaya fail to act decisively, history may repeat itself. Illegal mining could continue to thrive, environmental damage could worsen, and both states could find themselves trapped in a cycle of short-term economic gain at the cost of long-term devastation. But if they seize this moment to redefine their approach to coal, they could set a model for sustainable mining in India, proving that economic growth and environmental stewardship are not mutually exclusive.

The choice is clear: will Assam and Meghalaya work together to forge a new, responsible coal economy, or will they let history repeat itself, turning their rich natural resources into a source of endless crisis?

(Bijoy A. Sangma is a development professional, policy analyst, commentator on governance, economic policies, social justice and religious freedom. Currently a PhD scholar, he has previously worked with national and international organizations in leadership roles, contributing to thought leadership in public policy and social transformation. e-mail: [email protected])

Also Read: Second Meghalaya student dies in Karnataka food poisoning case

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